Shawn May
Cortland State University
It has often been said that great coaches find a way to get the best out of each athlete on their team. When one hears of a great coach, they hear of someone who carefully structures the athletic situation so that a group of individuals achieve something in their sport that no one thought possible. I believe that great coaches have perfected four essential coaching skills which include the ability to motivate a team, develop team cohesion, set effective goals, and communicate effectively. In this paper, I will examine the academic and research literature as it relates to each of these skills.
Motivation
Warren (1983) believes that the ability to motivate serves as the cornerstone of every successful coach. " To coaches, motivation means finding ways to get players to do things they might not want to do on their own. To players, motivation means having reasons for acting or failing to act" (Warren, 1983, p. 22). Motivation can come from intrinsic and extrinsic sources.
Intrinsic motivation may simply stem form the pure enjoyment of being part of a team or the feeling of self-worth that results when performing at an acceptable level. Extrinsic motivation may come from the desire for a higher salary, school popularity, or greater press coverage (Warren, 1983). The key, for coaches, is to find out what motivates each individual on a team.
Intrinsic Motivation
One could say that in order to have a highly successful team a coach needs to find a group of intrinsically motivated individuals that have both skill and athletic ability in the sport.
People who are intrinsically motivated have an inner striving to be competent and self-determinating, to master the task, to be successful. These qualities of competence, self-determination, mastery, and success are goals pursued by those who are intrinsically motivated, and when achieved are their own rewards. In sport, athletes who play the game because they love the game are intrinsically motivated. They play for inner pride, which is what compels them to do their best even when no one is watching. (Martens, 1987, p. 18)
Finding these types of athletes can, at times, be difficult. Most athletes don't just wake up one day and decide that they like one sport more than another. Usually a coach or someone else instilled deep appreciation for the sport, or the athlete had some previous successes in that particular sport that contributed to the athlete's preference (Warren, 1983). A great coach, however, can take good athletes and instill a love for the sport while motivating them to reach new heights in that sport. Athletes who play for a great coach feel good about being part of the team, in part, because a great coach will help each individual achieve personal successes.
Coaches can go only so far, however, for they cannot enter into the athlete's brain and force determination and love for a sport. This must ultimately come from the athlete. The athlete must have the desire to practice in the off-season and work extra hard for personal gains. A great coach can, in turn, fuel an athletes desire to new levels by using motivational techniques. Extrinsic motivation can be a seed from which intrinsic motivation sprouts.
Extrinsic Motivation
"Extrinsic rewards [are things] such as praise, affection, and publicizing an athlete’s efforts [,and they] should be a major concern for every coach" (Warren, 1983, p. 93). The great coach will make sure their players get their just due, for example, by calling the newspaper or publicizing within the school when a player achieves greatness. This sort of acknowledgement makes players proud to be part of a program. It can spark the interest of possible recruits as well.
In addition, a coach must praise their players for their successes in order for the players to know what is most valued by the coach. For example, a coach that loves players that work hard, and praises them when they do work hard, will generally get a team full of hard workers. On the contrary, a coach that does not praise players when they work hard, but punishes them when they don’t work hard will have a harder time trying to motivate the players over the long run (Warren, 1983). A study by Smoll and Smith (1989) showed that , in terms of player-perceived behaviors, supportive behaviors were positively related to attitudes toward the coach, whereas punitive behaviors were negatively related. The strength of the correlation was not reported. Judging from this research, it appears as if attempting to motivate a team with punishment tactics seems to lead to resentment from the players. I'm sure that this effect would be stronger if the punitive action was unjustified. Therefore, it appears as if one must be very tactful when using punishment as a motivational method. It must also be kept in mind that this study used a sample of Little League Baseball coaches and players, so it is possible that participants in other sports would react differently.
The presence of both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards can get an athlete psychologically committed to a sport, even when the athlete had very little previous interest in the sport. Coaches that are skilled motivators will show the athlete the extrinsic rewards of the sport and then slowly de-emphasize the extrinsic rewards and stress the intrinsic rewards (Martens, 1987). As a coach, one can highlight the successes and notoriety of past and current players and then tell players how far they could take their talents if they work hard towards a goal. In addition, I believe that it is important to teach players to focus on the personal satisfaction derived from doing the very best they can and making slow yet steady improvements. This attitude many help promote team cohesion as well.
Team Cohesion
A cohesive team works together to achieve a purpose or mission. Riley (1994) refers to team cohesiveness as a covenant between people. "A Covenant is an agreement that binds people together. Sometimes a Covenant is written out in great detail. Sometimes it is unspoken, completely expressed through action or trust" (Riley, 1994, p. 57). Riley believes that if a team that wants to achieve greatness they must follow his rule of the heart:
Every team must decide, very consciously, to uphold covenant terms that represent the best of values-voluntary cooperation, love, hard work, and concentration, for the good of the team. The greatness flowing through the heart of the team must be pumped out to all the extremities. (p.58)
In order to develop a cohesive team, a coach must have the ability to get a group of individuals to play their best for the good of the team. In promoting team cohesion it is important to ensure that each player feels as if they have a part or role in the mission of the team.
Pat Riley (1994), in his book entitled The Winner Within, quoted Abraham Lincoln as saying that '" A house divided against itself cannot stand" ' (p. 60). Riley believes that a team consisting of individuals that are looking out for their personal gains is a team that will not prosper. In addition, Riley notes that cliques within a team will pull the mission or goals of the team apart.
Enhancing Team Cohesion
A knowledgeable coach will be able to use the talents of each individual and will teach players how to make educated decisions during an athletic contest. For example, teaching the catcher to call pitches or the quarterback to call the plays. This autonomy, in turn, gives players a feeling of ownership for team successes and helps to promote cohesiveness (Warren, 1983).
Common sense will tell you, however, that if the players know that the coach is not competent in the sport, they will have a hard time believing in what the coach thinks they can achieve as a team, thus inhibiting team cohesion. Gardner, Shields, Bredemeier, and Bostrom's (1996) study showed that "… coaches who were perceived as high in training and instruction, democratic behavior, social support, and positive feedback, and low in autocratic behavior, had teams that were more cohesive" (1996, p. 367).
Boone, Beitel, and Kuhlman (1997) studied the effects of four collegiate baseball team's season record on cohesion. Their results suggested that losing, or lack of success, had a negative effect on cohesion, while being successful seemed only to maintain and/or sustain cohesion levels. Thus, it appears as if coaches should strive to have at least fairly successful seasons if they wish to maintain the team's level of cohesiveness.
Effects of Team Cohesion
Prapavessis and Carron (1996) found that group perceptions of cohesion influenced the competitive anxiety state of 110 athletes from a variety of interactive team sports. They found that those that reported a higher sense of cohesiveness had lower anxiety prior to competition. These results suggest that individuals on cohesive teams feel less pressured. One can assume that this psychological benefit would improve the dynamics of a team, since it would enable athletes to play hard, yet relaxed.
Often times, an athlete that performed at an outstanding level will say that they were in a "zone", which means that they were extremely focused on the task at hand. It seems as if it's harder for an athlete to concentrate if they are too concerned with failing and letting the team down. No one questions that the fear of failure is a motivating force for many athletes, but many great athletes don't fear failure. I believe that the majority of outstanding athletes are satisfied as long as they do the best they can. Therefore, coaches must strive to help each athlete on the team reach the level where doing the best they can is acceptable.
Setting Effective Goals
Coaching excellence calls for being able to set crystal clear, effective goals. Goal setting is one of the most popular motivational techniques used for enhancing performance and productivity, and there is an abundance of empirical findings supporting its' use in many settings (Tenenbaum, Pinchas, Elbaz, Bar-Eli, & Weinberg, 1991).
Goals are anticipated positive outcomes of an act or consequence of acts (Smoll & Smith, 1989). Therefore, before a coach can set goals, the direction in which the team is to be lead must be decided. Bell (1985) quoted George Halas as saying, '"Before it is possible to achieve anything, an objective must be set. Many people flounder about in life because they do not have a purpose, an objective toward which to work" ' (p. 26).
According to Bell (1985), the most important goals to set are weekly and daily goals, followed by the end of the season goal. These goals must delineate a clear purpose for each practice and game in order for the players to get their best out of their abilities.
The Need for Purpose
Anyone who has done anything great, usually started out with a dream; and then that dream was transformed into a goal. Every coach should have a dream for what they want their team to achieve during the course of a season. This dream gives purpose to all of the goals. Great coaches have vivid pictures in there minds about what the team should resemble in personality, how they should practice, how they should play the game, and about what they should achieve. A coach's aim should be for all members of the team to understand and accept the goals for the team and believe they can achieve these goals (Bell, 1985).
Riley (1994) noted the importance of leaders of a team believing in the coaching style and the team goals. Riley believes that a team will not achieve greatness without their support. Riley also noted that it is also important to outline the direction and goals of the team in the beginning of the season and periodically thereafter.
The Need for Clear Goals
Goals need to be clear, positive, and measurable if they are to be understood, accepted and achieved. The more the team understands the reason for setting each goal, the greater the sense of purpose when in training and in the game. Each goal must describe vividly what the team wants to achieve, not what is to be avoided. For example, a baseball team may decide they want to increase their fielding percentage by 20%. The opposite of this goal would be a team that wanted to make less than 50 errors in the season. The first goal is vivid, positive, and measurable (Bell, 1985).
Short Term Goals
A good coach will have short term performance goals for each day and week. It is the coach's responsibility to give them the opportunity to achieve the goals. For example, a basketball coach may require each player to take 100 shots each day, whether in practice or on their own. If the team is working primarily on defense that day in practice, each player is responsible for coming to the gym early or staying late to get their 100 shots in. If a situation arises where practice time is at a premium for defensive work, the coach should warn the players and ensure that the gym is open earlier or later so that the team can reach their goal of 100 shots per day (Bell, 1985).
Setting short term or daily goals gives players a purpose for everything they do in practice. Short term goals also motivate players to practice on their own. Another example of a daily or short term goal may be a baseball team deciding to win or tie every inning they play during the regular season with a 90% success rate. By focusing on winning every inning, a team will tend not to become complacent or comfortable with a lead and play hard the entire game. By breaking the game down into mini-goals, the team will learn to put an emphasis on doing ones best for the entire game.
Long Term Goals
The short term goals are very important, because, as we all know, you have to crawl before you can walk. However, coaches must be able to set individual and team goals for the end of the season in order to reinforce the short term or daily goals along the way. For example, hit over .440, steal 40 bases, win a league championship, and win a state title. The ultimate goal is one that may or may not be obtained, but it is the basis for the game plan for the entire season. From the first day of practice to the end of the season there must be a game plan. A coach must have a systematic approach to how they are going to get their team from point A to point B. Point B being a championship (Bell, 1985).
The end of season goals are at times not attained, but I believe that it is essential for players to realize the importance of giving their best effort in order to try and achieve the goals. Giving one's best effort is always honorable and certainly leads to victories and obtained goals latter in life. As Vince Lombardi (1973), once quoted President Theodore Roosevelt:
It is not the critic that counts . . . The credit belongs to the man who is in the arena . . . who strives valiantly, who errs and often comes up short again and again. . . who, at the best, knows in the end the triumph of high achievement, and who at worst, if he fails, at least failed while daring greatly, so that his place shall never be with those cold and timid souls who know neither victory nor defeat. " (p.16)
Effectiveness of Goals
There is empirical support for the notion that short term goals used in conjunction with long term goals can produce significant improvements in performance. Tenenbaum et al. (1991, studied the effectiveness of short-term, long -term, and short-term plus long-term goals in enhancing endurance performance among 214 high school students doing sit-ups over a 10 week experimental period. The researchers attempted to control for the influence of social comparison by randomly assigning classes , rather than students, to experimental groups. Their results indicated that the short plus long-term goal group exhibited the greatest increase in performance. Interestingly, the do-your-best control group did not display any improvement.
Hall and Byrne (1988) conducted a similar study, which again showed that subjects assigned to both short and long-term goals performed better than the do-your-best group. This study also showed that subjects assigned to long term goals, without short term goals, did not outperform the do-your-best group.
Tenenbaum et al cited research with contradictory findings, but the studies cited did not control for social comparison. On the other hand, Kyllo and Landers (1995) suggested that competition among subjects could inflate the effects of goal setting. Kyllo and Lander's (1995) meta analysis of 36 studies, conducted between 1965 and 1993, that investigated the effects of goal setting on sport, exercise, or motor performance demonstrated that setting goals in sport and exercise leads to an improvement over baseline measures by about one-third a standard deviation. This effect was maximized by setting moderately difficult goals. This analysis also suggested that goal setting could be improved by setting outcome goals, setting short-term and long-term goals, by allowing subjects to participate in goal setting, and by making the goals public.
Athlete Participation in Goal Setting
I believe that the team members should play a part in developing the short and long term goals as well, so that they will feel a sense of ownership for the overall plan. Most often , players will agree with a coach's goals, but if not, a simple explanation of the benefits to be obtained is usually all that is needed. Kyllo and Landers (1995) clearly noted that " goal setting is more effective at improving performance in sport when individuals are allowed to set, or at lest participate in setting the goals (p. 130). In order for interactive goal setting to take place, a coach must be able to effectively communicate with the players.
Communication
I believe being able to communicate is the most important skill in coaching. Yes, a coach can be good without being a great communicator, but I believe that they will have a very difficult time becoming a great coach. As Bell (1985) states:
What you have to say to your athletes is critical. The information you convey provides them with the expertise needed to organize and guide their play. Often equally important, however, is how you say what you say, when you say it, whether you have their attention, whether they are willing to listen, how much they trust your word and your expertise and what the message you meant to send means to them. (p.39)
Coaches must use communication when trying to develop or promote motivation, cohesiveness, or team goals. Essentially, good communication techniques are needed regardless of what a coach is doing. A coach that is a good communicator is someone who is a good listener, is clear and simple, gives feedback, is positive, is encouraging, allays anxiety, and is knowledgeable (Pyke, 1991).
Being a Good Listener
A coach that is a good communicator is a good listener. A good coach not only hears what their athletes are saying but seeks feedback and acts upon receiving it. For example, a coach might ask team leaders what they like and dislike about the team practices and seek ideas for how they can make the practice environment more enjoyable and productive (Pyke, 1991). A study by Dale and Wrisberg (1996), that utilized a sample of female Division I volleyball players, found that the athletes expressed appreciation for increased input into the nature of their training program and their goals. Since this study's sample only consisted of female volleyball players, we cannot conclude that the results would be applicable to all athletes. However, I believe that all athletes would prefer having input and that having input in and of itself could be motivating.
Good listening skills are also essential for a coach to have when displeased with a particular player. It is important for a coach to hear the athletes side of the story before passing judgment. Not only is it important for coaches to clearly understand player's perspectives, but it is important for coaches to give clear messages as well.
Being Clear and Simple
A coach that is a good communicator, is clear and simple when relaying information to the team. Whether in verbal or nonverbal communication, the simpler the message, the better. A coach must always be to the point and have a plan before talking to the team. The less a coach rambles on, the more the players can absorb the most important points of the message (Pyke, 1991).
When it comes to nonverbal communication, setting up signs in the locker room is an effective way to relay information. A pat on the shoulder, a hand shake, or a thumbs up is also a simple yet effective way to give feedback and communicate a job well done (Pyke, 1991).
Giving Feedback
A coach that is a good communicator also gives accurate and prompt feedback. Without feedback the athlete on a team will have a hard time knowing where they stand in regard to the level of performance desired by the coach. Athletes must have honest feedback if they are to improve. Horn (1985) examined the relationship between coach's feedback and changes in the self -perceptions of female athletes from five junior high softball teams. Horn found that a significant portion of the change in player's perceptions of competence was explained by a combination of variables including player's attained skill level and coach's feedback. Horn believed that his research findings supported the notion that children's performance, adult evaluation, and development of children's perceptions of competence were linked. Unfortunately, we cannot conclude from this study that the same would be true with adults.
Whenever a player achieves a desired performance level the player should know it, as well as the entire team. It is also important to periodically tell the athletes where they stand. A coach should talk with each player individually at least twice during the season, preferably in the beginning of the season and in the middle of the season (Pyke, 1991). Talks at the end of the season are also desirable if team size permits, and they promote positive attitudes among players. When players are hard to get in contact with, a letter or note card thanking them for the season , giving them things to work on for next year, and noting kills they improved on during the season is a good idea.
Being Positive
A coach that is a good communicator is also a positive person (Pyke, 1991). There are enough negative attitudes to go around, so coaches need to stress the positive. A coach who can stress the positive, regardless of the situation, can spread a positive attitude. For example, after a loss a coach can talk about all the things that they improved on in the contest and talk less about skills to work on. As Pyke (1991) pointed out, "successful communicators will [skillfully] highlight a flaw in technique in the midst of mentioning several other positive aspects of performance" (p.10). A positive coach could also be considered an encouraging coach.
Being Encouraging
An encouraging attitude is also beneficial if a coach is to be a good communicator. The foundation of a coach's encouragement, however, must be based upon the belief that the players can improve. Players of ten see through a coach that uses insincere flattery, but players can be pushed to new heights of achievement by a coach that is sincere (Pyke, 1991). Harwood (1997) believes that the more enthusiastic a coach is when they give out encouragement the more the players will feel the excitement of the program.
Chase, Feltz, and Lirgg, (1997) cite a large body of literature, in such diverse areas such as education, business, the military, and sports, that supports the notion that leader expectations for their followers influence performance. In their study of four collegiate basketball teams, they found that coach's expectations were positively correlated with performance. This may have been due to the fact that the coach's expected their teams to do well against teams with lesser ability however. The validity of the study could have been improved if the researchers had controlled for perceived opponent ability, however it does appear as if believing in one's team can be beneficial.
Reducing Anxiety
A coach that is a good communicator can not only provide encouragement by can reduce stress and anxiety among the athletes as well (Pyke, 1991). One of the keys to getting a team to perform at a championship caliber is to prepare them mentally. A coach must convey a mental picture of optimal performance, yet stress the fact that it is just a game in order to help suppress anxiety. Athletes and coaches alike should also feel as if their best effort is acceptable in sport and in life, and realize that no one can give their best effort if they are nervous or apprehensive during a contest.
Greenspan and Feltz (1989) analyzed 19 studies that focused on the use of psychological interventions used to improve athletes' performance during competition in 12 different sports. The interventions were classified as relaxation, behavioral or cognitive restructuring. The subjects in all of the studies were athletes that competed on a regular And organized basis. The majority of the subjects were male. Greenspan and Feltz concluded that " …in general, educational relaxation -based interventions and remedial cognitive restructuring interventions are effective in improving the performance of collegiate and adult athletes in competitive situations" (1989, p. 233). However, Greenspan and Feltz warned that many of the studies had flawed methodologies, that made inferring causality questionable. Thus, they called for more high quality research.
Great coaches can play the role of a sport psychologist and find out why the player views the athletic contest as a nervous situation so that they can use techniques to help them work through it (Pyke, 1991). Knowledge and experience can allow a coach to do this.
Being Knowledgeable
Great coaches are a wealth of knowledge and can communicate that knowledge. A coach should know their sport inside and out, especially if they want to be any good at coaching. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar believes that a coach should be an expert on teaching their players the fundamentals of the game (Nolan, 1997).
The study by Smoll and Smith (1989) mentioned earlier, found that players responded most favorably to coaches who engaged in a higher percentage of supportive and instructional behaviors. Although this study only utilized a sample consisting of Little League players and coaches, it is very likely that the same conclusion would have be derived should they have studied other sports and levels of athletics.
Players will see right through a coach if they are fudging their way through the sport. On the other hand, a coach that can communicate to a player how to get better and how to improve on their own will develop a solid relationship with the players. The better a coach can convey to their team how to perform a skill , the better and more motivated they will become. When a coach is able to communicate to the players about the challenges that they may encounter along the way and prepare them to deal with them in a contest, the players will develop a deep belief in the coach's knowledge (Pyke, 1991).
Summary
Coaches that wish to be outstanding must possesses the ability to motivate a team, develop a cohesive team, set effective goals, and communicate effectively. Coaches must realize that they need not only provide extrinsic motivation, but they need to realize that to achieve their goal of a unified, cohesive team, these extrinsic motivations must result in intrinsic motivation and a team oriented mindset on the part of the individual players. Coaches must also always strive to improve their communication with team members if they wish to succeed and be true team builders. Team builders have a unifying force that can lead a group of individuals to new heights (Riley, 1994).
Coaches not only need to be skilled in all of the above areas , but they need to keep abreast of current research as well. Although the research studies that have been conducted are very helpful, more are needed before concrete conclusions can be made. Studies need to be done that replicate prior studies, yet use samples from a wider range of sports and athletic levels.
References
Bell, K. (1985). Coaching excellence. Austin, TX: Keel Publications.
Boone, K.S., Beitel, P., & Kuhlman, J.S. (1997). The effects of the sin/loss record on cohesion. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20 (2), 125-133.
Chase, M.A. , Felts, D.L., & Lirgg, C. D. (1997). Do coaches' efficacy expectations for their teams predict team performance ? The Sport Psychologist, 11, 9-23.
Dale, G.D., & Wrisberg, C.A. (1996). The use of a performance profiling technique in a ream setting: Getting the athletes and coach on the same page. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 261-277.
Gardner, D. E. , Shields, D. L., Bredemeier, B.L., & Bostrom, A. (1996). The relationship between perceived coaching behaviors and team cohesion among baseball and softball players. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 367-381.
Greenspan, M.J., & Feltz, D..L. (1989). Psychological interventions with athletes in competitive situations: A review. The Sport Psychologist, 3, 219-236.
Hall, H., & Byrne, T. (1988). Goal setting in sport: Clarifying anomalies. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 189-192.
Harwood, D. (1997). Your coaching philosophy. Coach and Athletic Director, 67 (2), p.4.
Horn, T.S. (1985). Coaches' feedback and changes in children's perception of their physical competence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77 (2), 174-186.
Kyllo, L.B., & Landers, D.M. (1995). Goal setting in sport and exercise: A research synthesis to resolve the controversy. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, 117-137.
Lombardi, V. (1973). Vince Lombardi: On football (Vol. I). New York: Graphic Society Ltd. & Wallynn, Inc.
Martens, R. (1942). Coaches guide to sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetic Publishers, Inc.
Nolan, T. (1997). The Kareem of the crop. Coach and Athletic Director, 67 (2), p.52.
Prapavessis, H, & Carron, A. V. (1996). The effect of group cohesion on competitive state anxiety. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18, 64-74.
Pyke, F.S. (Ed.). (1991). Better coaching: Advanced coach's manual. Belconnen, ACT: Australian Coaching Council Inc.
Riley, P. (1994). The winner within: A life plan for team players. New York: Berkley Publishing Group.
Smoll, F. L., & Smith, R.E. (1989). Leadership behaviors in sport: A theoretical model and research paradigm. Journal on Applied Sport Psychology, 19, 1522-1551.
Tenenbaum, G., Pinchas, S.M, Elbaz, G., Bar-Eli, M., & Weinberg, R. (1991). Effect of goal proximity and goal specificity on muscular endurance performance: A replication and extension. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, 174-187.
Warren, W.E. (1983). Coaching and motivation: A practical guide to maximum athletic performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.
Abstract
Coaches that wish to be outstanding must possesses the ability to motivate a team, develop a cohesive team, set effective goals, and communicate effectively. Coaches must realize that they need not only provide extrinsic motivation, but they need to realize that to achieve their goal of a unified, cohesive team, these extrinsic motivations must result in intrinsic motivation and a team oriented mindset on the part of the individual players. Coaches must also always strive to improve their communication with team members if they wish to succeed and be true team builders. Team builders have a unifying force that can lead a group of individuals to new heights (Riley, 1994).
Coaches not only need to be skilled in all of the above areas , but they need to keep abreast of current research as well. Although the research studies that have been conducted are very helpful, more are needed before concrete conclusions can be made. Studies need to be done that replicate prior studies, yet use samples from a wider range of sports and athletic levels.